Contents
. -- Preface
. -- Acknowledgements
. -- Authors
. -- Contributing Authors
. -- 1. Introduction
. -- 1.1 Smart Distribution Networks
. -- 1.2 New Characteristics Of a Smart Distribution Network
. -- 1.2.1 Distributed Energy Systems
. -- 1.2.2 Multi-Layer Autonomous Operation Areas
. -- 1.2.3 Information And Communication Systems
. -- 1.2.4 Novel Power Electronic Devices
. -- 1.3 Simulation Of a Smart Distribution Network
. -- 1.4 Operational Optimization Of a Smart Distribution Network
. -- 1.5 Planning And Design Of a Smart Distribution Network
. -- Questions
. -- References
. -- 2. Fundamentals Of Distributed Energy Resources
. -- 2.1 Introduction
. -- 2.2 Combined Heat And Power Plants
. -- 2.2.1 Steam Turbines
. -- 2.2.1.1 Back-Pressure Turbines
. -- 2.2.1.2 Pass-Out Condensing Steam Turbines
. -- 2.2.2 Gas Turbines
. -- 2.2.3 Combined Cycle
. -- 2.2.4 Reciprocating Engines
. -- 2.2.5 Micro-Turbines
. -- 2.2.6 Fuel Cells
. -- 2.3 Photovoltaic Energy Systems
. -- 2.3.1 Operation Of a Pv Cell 20
. -- 2.3.2 Equivalent Circuit Of a Pv Cell
. -- 2.3.3 Maximum Power Extraction
. -- 2.3.4 Effect Of Irradiance And Temperature
. -- 2.3.5 Pv Modules And Arrays
. -- 2.3.6 Grid-Connected Pv Arrays
. -- 2.3.6.1 Dc–Dc Converter
. -- 2.3.6.2 Single-Phase Inverter
. -- 2.3.6.3 Grid Interface
. -- 2.4 Wind Energy Systems
. -- 2.4.1
. -- 2.4.2 Extraction Of Wind Energy From The Turbine 2.4.3 Wind Turbine Topologies 2.4.3.1 Doubly Fed Induction Generator 2.4.3.2 Fsfc-Based Wind Turbines 2.5 Electrical Energy Storage 2.5.1 Electrochemical Storage (Batteries) 2.5.1.1 Lead Acid (La) 2.5.1.2 Ni-Based Batteries 2.5.1.3 Li-Ion Batteries 2.5.1.4 Na-S 2.5.2 Flow Batteries 2.5.3 Mechanical Storage 2.5.4 Electrical Storage 2.5.4.1 Ultra-Capacitor 2.5.4.2 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage 2.6 Flexible Demand Questions References 3. Management Of Distributed Energy Resources 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Demand-Side Integration 3.2.1 Services Provided By Dsi 3.2.2 System Support From Dsi 3.3 Microgrids 3.3.1 Microgrid Concept 3.3.2 Microgrid Structure 3.3.2.1 Ac Microgrid 3.3.2.2 Dc Microgrid 3.3.2.3 Hybrid Ac–Dc Microgrid 3.3.3 Microgrid Applications 3.4 Cells 3.4.1 Cell Concept 3.4.2 Cell Structure And Control 3.4.3 Cell Perspectives 3.5 Virtual Power Plants 3.5.1 Vpp Concept 3.5.2 Vpp Management 3.5.2.1 Commercial Vpp 3.5.2.2 Technical Vpp 3.5.2.3 Interactions Between Cvpp And Tvpp Questions References 4. Ict Infrastructure And Cyber-Security 4.1 Ict Infrastructure And Cyber-Security 4.2 Communications Technologies 4.2.1 Wireless Mesh 4.2.2 Cellular Network Communication 4.2.3 Power Line Communication 4.2.4 Digital Subscriber Lines 4.3 Communications Requirements 4.3.1 Communication Requirements Of Substation Automation 4.3.2 Communication Requirements Of Overhead Distribution Line Monitoring 4.3.3 Communication Requirements For Advanced Metering Infrastructure 4.3.4 Communication Requirements Of Demand Response 4.3.5 Communication Requirements Of Outage Management Systems 4.3.6 Communication Requirements Of Distribution Automation 4.3.7 Communication Requirements Of Distribution Management System
. -- 4.3.8 Communication Requirements Of Asset Management 4.3.9 Communication Requirements Of Distributed Energy Resources 4.3.10 Communication Requirements Of Grid To Vehicle And Vehicle To Grid 4.4 Distribution Communication Standards 4.4.1 Iec 61850 103 4.4.2 Iec 61499 110 4.5 Cyber-Security And Privacy Concerns 4.5.1 Nature Of Cyber-Security And Privacy Concerns In Distribution Networks 4.5.2 Basic Cyber-Security Concerns 4.5.3 Solutions That Ensure Cyber-Security In Distribution Networks Questions References 5. Power Electronics In Distribution Systems 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Grid Interface For Ders 5.2.1 Wind Turbines 5.2.2 Photovoltaic Generators 5.2.3 Electric Vehicles 5.3 Devices For Power Quality Improvement 5.3.1 Dynamic Voltage Restorer 5.3.2 Static Compensator 5.3.3 Active Filtering 5.4 Devices For Network Support And Other Applications 5.4.1 Statcom For Load Compensation 5.4.2 Statcom For Grid Code Compliance Of Wind Farms 5.4.3 Soft Open Points For Network Support 5.4.3.1 Normal Operation Mode 5.4.3.2 Supply Restoration Mode 5.4.4 Fault Current Limiter For Network Support 5.4.5 Solid-State Transformer For Network Support Questions References 6. Operation Simulation And Analysis 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Distribution Network Components And Their Modelling 6.2.1 Distribution Line 6.2.2 Distribution Transformer 6.2.3 Distribution Load 6.2.4 Shunt Capacitor 6.2.5 Distributed Generators 6.2.5.1 Power Electronic Devices 6.2.5.2 Synchronous Generators 6.2.5.3 Asynchronous Generators 6.2.6 Energy Storage System 6.2.7 Dstatcom 6.2.7.1 Q Control Mode 6.2.7.2 V Control Mode 6.2.7.3 Droop Control Mode 6.2.8 Dynamic Voltage Regulator 6.2.9 Sop 6.3 Controllers For Network Components 6.3.1 Voltage Regulator 6.3.2 Capacitor Controller 6.3.3 Energy Storage Controller 6.4 Power Flow Analysis 6.5 Sequential Power Flow 6.6 Short-Circuit Fault Analysis
. -- 6.6.1 Short-Circuit Fault Types 6.6.2 Methodology Of Fault Analysis 6.6.3 Fault Analysis Considering Distributed Generators 6.6.3.1 Dgs Of Synchronous Generator Type 6.6.3.2 Dgs Of Asynchronous Generator Type 6.6.3.3 Dgs Of Power Electronic Type 6.7 Case Studies 6.7.1 Case For Power Flow Analysis 6.7.2 Case For Sequential Power Flow 6.7.3 Case For Short-Circuit Fault Analysis Questions References 7. Transient Analysis 7.1 Introduction 7.2 First Example Of Electromagnetic Transient Simulation 7.3 Nodal Analysis For Transient Simulation 7.3.1 Electrical System Element Modelling 7.3.2 Modelling And Simulation At The System Level 7.4 Control System Simulation In The Nodal Analysis Framework 7.4.1 Compositional Modelling Of Control Systems 7.4.2 Modelling Dynamic Components In Control Systems 7.4.3 Control System Transient Simulation Based On Newton’S Method 7.5 Interpolation For Power Electronics Simulation 7.6 Case Studies 7.6.1 Four-Node Test System 7.6.1.1 Three-Phase To Ground Short-Circuit Fault 7.6.1.2 Two-Phase Short-Circuit Fault 7.6.2 Ieee 123-Node Test Feeder With Pv Integration Questions Appendix 7A 245 7.A.1 First Example 7.A.2 Transient Simulation Model Of a Pv System 7.A.3 Model Parameters Of The 20 Kw Pv System References 8. Control And Protection Of Microgrids 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Control Of Microgrids 8.2.1 Control Philosophy 8.2.1.1 Master-Slave Control 8.2.1.2 Peer-To-Peer Control 8.2.2 Control Schemes For Inverter-Based Dgs 8.2.2.1 Outer-Loop Controller 8.2.2.2 Inner-Loop Controller 8.2.3 Case Analysis 8.2.3.1 Control Of Microgrid In Grid264 Connected Mode 8.2.3.2 Control Of The Microgrid In Islanded Mode 8.2.3.3 Switching Of The Microgrid Operation Mode 8.3 Protection Of Microgrids 8.3.1 Requirements Of Microgrid Protection 8.3.2 Protection At The Pcc Of a Microgrid 8.3.2.1 Grid-Connected Mode 8.3.2.2 Islanded Mode 8.3.3 Protection Of Feeders Within a Microgrid 8.3.4 Case Studies 8.3.4.1 Protection Setting Calculation Without The Microgrids 8.3.4.2 Impact Of The Microgrid On Overcurrent Protections When a Fault Occurs On Its Downstream Feeders 8.3.4.3 Impact Of The Microgrid On Overcurrent Protections When a Fault Occurs On Its Upstream Feeders
. -- 8.3.4.4 Impact Of The Microgrid On Overcurrent Protections When a Fault Occurs On Adjacent Feeders Questions References 9. Energy Management And Optimal Planning Of Microgrids 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Energy Management Of Microgrids 9.2.1 Microgrid Energy Management System 9.2.1.1 Scada 9.2.1.2 Energy Management Module 9.2.2 Microgrid Scheduling Strategy 9.2.2.1 Heuristic Scheduling Strategy 9.2.2.2 Static Optimization Strategy 9.2.2.3 Dynamic Optimization Strategy 9.2.3 Microgrid Device Models 9.2.3.1 Pv Generation System 9.2.3.2 Micro-Turbine Power Generation System 9.2.3.3 Battery Energy Storage 9.2.3.4 Power Electronic Converter 9.2.3.5 Gas Boiler 9.2.3.6 Waste Heat Recovery Boiler 9.2.3.7 Heat Exchanger 9.2.3.8 Electric Chiller 9.2.4 Energy Balance 9.2.5 Optimal Scheduling Model Of a Microgrid 9.2.5.1 Objective Function 9.2.5.2 Constraints 9.2.5.3 Optimization Variables 9.2.6 Case Studies 9.3 Optimal Planning Of Microgrids 9.3.1 Problem Formulation 9.3.2 Objective Function 9.3.2.1 Present Value Of The Initial Investment Cost Of Devices 9.3.2.2 Present Value Of The Operational Cost Of Microgrid 9.3.3 Case Studies 9.3.3.1 Operation Strategies Of a Microgrid 9.3.3.2 Objective Function Of Microgrid Planning 9.3.3.3 Results And Discussions Questions References 10. Planning Of Smart Distribution Systems 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Planning Of Smart Distribution Systems 10.3 Load Forecasting Of Smart Distribution Systems 10.3.1 Load Forecasting Of Traditional Distribution Systems 10.3.1.1 Total Load Forecasting 10.3.1.2 Spatial Load Forecasting 10.3.2 Load Forecasting Of Smart Distribution Systems 10.3.2.1 Influence Of Controllable Load 10.3.2.2 Influence Of Distributed Generation 10.4 Planning Of Substations In Smart Distribution Systems 10.4.1 Planning Of Substations In Traditional Distribution Systems 10.4.1.1 Mathematical Model 10.4.1.2 Solution Process 10.4.2 Planning Of Substations In Smart Distribution Systems 10.5 Network Planning Of Smart Distribution Systems 10.5.1 Network Planning Of Traditional Distribution Networks 10.5.1.1 Selection Of Network Configuration And Circuit Type
. -- 10.5.1.2 Determination Of The Number Of Outgoing Feeders 10.5.1.3 Methods For Network Planning 10.5.2 Network Planning Of Smart Distribution Systems 10.5.2.1 Determination Of The Number Of Outgoing Feeders 10.5.2.2 Methods For Network Planning 10.6 Reliability Assessment Of Smart Distribution Systems 10.6.1 Reliability Assessment Of Traditional Distribution Systems 10.6.1.1 Basic Principle Of System Reliability Assessment 10.6.1.2 Reliability Indices Of Load Points 10.6.1.3 Reliability Evaluation Method Of a Distribution System 10.6.2 Effects Of New Components In Smart Distribution Systems 10.6.2.1 Effects Of Controllable Load 10.6.2.2 Influence Of Distributed Generation Questions References 11. Dc Distribution Networks 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Dc Transmission 11.3 Connection Of Renewable Generating Plant 11.4 Faults On Vsc-Based Mvdc 11.4.1 Ac-Side Faults 394 11.4.2 Dc-Side Faults 11.5 Multi-Terminal Dc Grids 11.6 Dc Microgrids Questions References Index